भौतिकी का सबसे बड़ा परीक्षण

• Large Hadron Collider will have first attempt at circulating a beam September 10, 2008
  
• It's the largest particle accelerator in the world and costs about $9 billion
  
• Lawsuits allege it could generate black holes that could eat the Earth
  
• Scientists say these allegations have no merit

10 सितंबर 2008, बुधवार, जेनेवा जहां दुनियाभर के लगभग 2500 वैज्ञानिक जुटेंगे। धरती के 330 फुट नीचे लार्ज हैड्रान कोलाइडर [एलएचसी] नाम की एक मशीन के जरिए होगा भौतिकी का सबसे बड़ा प्रयोग।

चौदह साल के लंबे इंतजार के बाद पृथ्वी की अनेक गुत्थियां सुलझने को हैं और अब तक के सबसे विशाल परीक्षण के जरिए ब्रह्मांड की उत्पत्ति के रहस्य का पता लगाने की कोशिश करेंगे। ब्रह्मांड की उत्पत्ति एक महाविस्फोट से हुई थी और वैज्ञानिक 27 किलोमीटर लंबी इस मशीन से विस्फोट कर एक बार फिर वैसी ही परिस्थितियां पैदा करेंगे, ताकि दुनिया के निर्माण के रहस्य का पता लगाया जा सके।

इस प्रयोग के विरोधी वैज्ञानिकों का कहना है कि इस परीक्षण से धरती एक ब्लैक होल में समा सकती है, वहीं प्रयोग करने वाले वैज्ञानिक ऐसी आशंकाओं को निराधार बता रहे हैं। एलएचसी से धरती के नष्ट होने का कोई खतरा नहीं है, क्योंकि यदि ऐसा कोई खतरा होता तो वैज्ञानिक यह प्रयोग करने का जोखिम नहीं उठाते।

ब्रह्मांड की उम्र लगभग 14 अरब वर्ष और धरती की उत्पत्ति की उम्र करीब साढ़े चार अरब वर्ष मानी जाती है। तब से लेकर अब तक ब्रह्मांड में न जाने कितनी टक्कर हुई हैं। लेकिन धरती के अस्तित्व पर कभी कोई संकट नहीं आया। ब्रह्मांड में उच्च ऊर्जा वाले प्रोटोन आपस में टकराते हैं, जबकि इस प्रयोग के दौरान अत्यंत कम ऊर्जा वाले प्रोटोनों की टक्कर कराई जाएगी। इसलिए धरती को कोई खतरा नहीं है। प्रयोग का उद्देश्य यही पता लगाना है कि पदार्थ कहां से आया और कैसे बना।

प्रयोग को अंजाम देने वाला यूरोपीय परमाणु अनुसंधान संगठन इससे धरती को कोई खतरा नहीं मानता, जबकि दूसरी ओर विश्व के कई वैज्ञानिक एलएचसी से धरती के नष्ट हो जाने के खतरे की आशंका भी जता रहे हैं। ब्रिटिश अखबार डेली मेल ने ऐसे कई वैज्ञानिकों के हवाले से कहा है कि इससे धरती को खतरा है और सबसे पहले तबाही हिन्द महासागर से शुरू होगी। उनका कहना है कि धरती की तबाही में 10 सितंबर से लेकर चार साल तक का वक्त लग सकता है। एलएचसी भौतिकी का सबसे बड़ा प्रयोग है जिस पर अब तक 384 अरब डालर की राशि खर्च हो चुकी है। इस मशीन का बटन जर्मन वैज्ञानिक डाक्टर ईवान्स के हाथों में है।

प्रयोग में लगे वैज्ञानिकों का कहना है कि यह अनुसंधान सेकेंड के अरबवें हिस्से में होगा, इसलिए यदि कोई ब्लैक होल बना भी तो वह एक जगह से दूसरी जगह पहुंचने में ही खत्म हो जाएगा।

NUCLEAR FISSION

A fission reaction involves the splitting of atomic nuclei into two or more parts after colliding with a free neutron. Uranium is the only natural element that can easily be split. The small particless of the nuclei that split, travel at an incredible speed and collide with other uranium nuclei causing them to split. This process causes a chain reaction creating heat from the kinetic energy of the quickly moving particles. The heat is used to convert water to steam which turns a turbine which turns a generator and creates electricity.

An example of nuclear fission is the chain reaction: n+u = Kr+Ba+3n, where the capture of a neutron (n) by an uranium nucleus (U) leads to a break-up (Fission) of the uranium into the two nuclei of krypton (Kr) and barium (Ba) and the release of three neutrons (3n).

Top 10 Facts About Nuclear Energy

1. There are 104 commercial nuclear power plants producing 20 percent of the emission-free electricity in the United States. They are located at 64 sites in 31 states.

2. More than 400 nuclear power plants worldwide produce 16 percent of the world’s electricity—while reducing CO2 emissions by more than 2 billion metric tons per year.

3. Nuclear energy supplies electricity each year to serve 60 million homes.

4. Nuclear energy has one of the lowest environmental impacts of any electricity source. For example, a wind farm would need 235 square miles to produce the same amount of electricity as a 1,000-megawatt nuclear power plant.

5. Nuclear energy is by far the nation’s largest source of electricity that does not emit any controlled air pollutants, providing 73 percent of the electricity from all carbon-free sources, including hydroelectric, wind and solar.

6. Nuclear power plants provide low-cost, predictable power at stable prices and are essential in maintaining the reliability of the U.S. electric power system.

7. Nuclear power plants are able to produce abundant and low cost energy source because they use an enriched form of uranium for fuel. One uranium fuel pellet – the size of the tip of your little finger – is equivalent to 17,000 cubic feet of natural gas, 1,780 pounds of coal, or 149 gallons of oil.

8. The economic activity of a U.S. nuclear plant generates on average around $20 million in state and local tax revenues.

9. You would have to live near a nuclear power plant for over 2,000 years to get the same amount of radiation exposure that you get from a single diagnostic medical x-ray.

10. There are nearly 100 different nuclear medicine imaging procedures available today. An estimated 10 to 12 million nuclear medicine imaging and therapeutic procedures are performed each year in the United States.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

If the level of our per capita electricity consumption is raised to the level of a developed country (~5000 kWh/person/year) and only a single energy resource is to be used:

Domestic extractable coal reserves will last for <13

Uranium in open cycle will last for ~ 0.5 year

Uranium in closed cycle with FBRs will last for ~ 73 years

Known reserves of thorium in closed cycle with breeder reactors will last for > 250 years

Entire renewable energy (including Hydroelectric capacity) will be sufficient for < 70 days/ year

Total solar collection area (based on MNES estimate 20 MW/km2) needed will be at least ~ 31000 sq. km.

It is obvious that for long term energy security nuclear energy based on thorium has to be a prominent component of Indian energy mix.

2005-05-27 (Delhi, Petrofed) RKS - India's Energy Security - The Role of Nuclear Energy

The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) is responsible for design, construction, commissioning and operation of thermal nuclear power plants.

It has 15 small and two mid-sized nuclear power reactors in commercial operation, six under construction - including two large ones and a fast breeder reactor, and more planned.

India's operating nuclear power reactors:

Reactor	Type	MWe net, each	Commercial operation	Safeguards status
Tarapur 1 & 2	BWR	150	1969	item-specific
Kaiga 1 & 2	PHWR	202	1999-2000
Kaiga 3	PHWR	202	2007
Kakrapar 1 & 2	PHWR	202	1993-95	by 2012 under new agreement
Kalpakkam 1 & 2 (MAPS)	PHWR	202	1984-86
Narora 1 & 2	PHWR	202	1991-92	by 2014 under new agreement
Rawatbhata 1	PHWR	90	1973	item-specific
Rawatbhata 2	PHWR	187	1981	item-specific
Rawatbhata 3 & 4	PHWR	202	1999-2000	by 2010 under new agreement
Tarapur 3 & 4	PHWR	490	2006, 05
Total (17)		3779 MWe

Kalpakkam also known as Madras/MAPS
Rawatbhata also known as Rajasthan/RAPS
Kakrapar = KAPS, Narora = NAPS
dates are for start of commercial operation.

India's nuclear power reactors under construction:

Reactor	Type	MWe net, each	Project control	Commercial operation	Safeguards status
Kaiga 4	PHWR	202 MWe	NPCIL	end of 2008
Rawatbhata 5 & 6	PHWR	202 MWe	NPCIL	end of 2008, 3/09	by 2008 under new agreement
Kudankulam 1 & 2	PWR (VVER)	950 MWe	NPCIL	9/2009, 12/09	item-specific
Kalpakkam PFBR	FBR	470 MWe	Bhavini	2010	unlikely
Total (6)		2976 MWe

Rawatbhata also known as Rajasthan/RAPS
dates are for start of commercial operation.

In April 2007 the government gave approval for construction of the first four of these eight units.

Power reactors planned or firmly proposed

Reactor	Type	MWe net, each	Project control	Start operation
Kakrapar 3 & 4	PHWR	640	NPCIL	2012
Rawatbhata 7 & 8	PHWR	640	NPCIL	2012
Kudankulam 3 & 4	PWR - VVER	1000	NPCIL
Jaitapur 1 & 2	PWR	1000	NPCIL
?	PWR x 2	1000	NTPC	2014
?	PHWR x 4	640	NPCIL
?	FBR x 4	470	Bhavini	2020
?	AHWR	300	?	2020

For reactor table: first ten units 'planned', next 9 'proposed'.

In August 2007 the government approved a new US$ 270 million mine and mill at Tummalapalle in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, for commissioning in 2010.

India's uranium mines and mills - existing and announced

State, district	Mine	Mill	Operating from	tU per year
Jharkhand	Jaduguda	Jaduguda	1967 (mine) 1968 (mill)	175 total from mill
	Bhatin	Jaduguda	1967
	Narwapahar	Jaduguda	1995
	Bagjata	Jaduguda	2008
	Turamdih	Turamdih	2003 (mine) 2008 (mill)	190 total from mill
	Banduhurang	Turamdih	2007
	Mohuldih	Turamdih	2011
Meghalaya	Kylleng-Pyndengsohiong (Domiasiat)Mawthabah	Mawthabah	2012	340
Andhra Pradesh, Nalgonda	Lambapur-Peddagattu	Seripally	2012	130
Andhra Pradesh, Kadapa	Tummalapalle	Tummalapalle	2010	220

However, India has reserves of 290,000 tonnes of thorium - about one quarter of the world total, and these are intended to fuel its nuclear power program longer-term.

Some Data for the Top Twelve GDP Ranking Countries

Country	GDP Rank	Electricity Prodn. Rank	Per Capita Elec. Gen. (kWh/yr)	bn kWh Nuclear 2003*	% Nuclear	Reactors under constn.	Installed MWe per Te U/Yr reqd.
USA	01	01	12824	763.7	20	0	4.4
China	02	02	1104	79.0	1.4	3	5.1
Japan	03	03	8152	230.8	39	3	5.8
India	04	05	610	16.4	3.7	9 (8 now)	8.5
Germany	05	07	6616	157.4	30	0	5.6
France	06	08	8642	420.7	78	0	6.2
UK	07	09	6006	85.3	22	0	4.9
Italy	08	12	4462	0	0	0
Russia	09	04	5858	138.4	16	6	6.9
Brazil	10	10	1765	13.3	4.0	0	6.1
S. Korea	11	11	6020	123.3	39	2	5.3
Canada	12	06	17581	70.3	12	0	7.1
WORLD			2356		16	29	5.4

o First commercial nuclear power stations started operation in 1950s.

o 440 commercial nuclear reactors operating in 31 countries

o 360,000 MWe is the total capacity.

o Supply of 16% of the world's electricity

· 56 countries operate a total of 284 research reactors.